GMOs

​Plants and animals have been domesticated since humans were capable of settling down in an area, ending the era of hunter/gatherer societies. By utilizing selective breeding, plants were able to produce a greater abundance of fruits and vegetables and animals were able to produce more meat, dairy and eggs. This process has been used since it’s conception, and is still in use today. But Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen introduced a more efficient method for modification in 1973. The method they created is what we now call genetic modification. A common method begins by extracting a segment of DNA that contains desirable traits and then using recombinant DNA methods. Recombinant DNA is formed via genetic recombination, which is the combining of genetic material from multiple sources. The end result is a host that contains sequence that would otherwise not be found. This is the method that Boyer and Cohen used in their infamous experiment.
 
What is now considered the dawn of genetic modification, Boyer and Cohen took a gene from a bacterium that displayed resistance to kanamycin – an antibiotic – and inserted it into a plasmid. They then induced another bacteria to incorporate the plasmid.  The modified bacterium was then able to survive in the presence on kanamycin, when it previously couldn’t (1).  Boyer then teamed up with Robert Swanson, a fellow chemist, and founded Genentech in 1976, which is still one of the largest biotechnology companies in the world. Within their first year they had already developed somatostatin within E.coli; they then used this as a stepping stone, and by 1978 they began production of genetically engineered human grade insulin (2), replacing the common pig insulin that was on the market. In 1983, the first genetically modified plant was developed. Michael Bevan, Richard Flavell and Mary-Dell Chiltion infected a tobacco plant with a bacterium that had been modified with an antibiotic resistance gene. Once proper infection had occurred, they were able to grow the plant with a resistance gene (2). In 1987, mice were modified to produce human tissue plasminogen activation in their milk (4). Once the 1990s came around, genetic modification took off. China began to commercialize a virus-resistant strain of tobacco in 1992 (5), Calgene (known as Monsanto) began production of the first genetically modified food, the Flavr Savr tomato (6), Europe approved herbicide resistant tobacco (7), and insect resistant potatoes were approved in the United States (8). This process has continued with plants, and in 2015, the first genetically modified animal for food use was approved: AquAdvantage salmon. This salmon has a base of an Atlantic salmon, with a growth hormone-regulating gene from the Pacific Chinook and a promoter from an ocean pout, allowing it to grow year round as opposed to the spring and summer seasons. The fish is capable of growing to 16-18 inches within a few months opposed to the three years it would normally take (9). While this may seem scary to some, it creates an opportunities that we wouldn’t have otherwise.
 
Our current existence relies on the consumption of nature. But if we are to modify species to exist with little to no impact on nature, we can release our hold on nature and allow it to return to how it was. Creating genetically modified organisms such as the AquAdvantage salmon allows us to become less reliant on standard fishing. By moving to a modified salmon, we can allow natural fish species to repopulate while we consume a species that is designed for consumption. As it stands now, fish are heavily over populated. But that is not to say that we should stop fishing. Species populations still need to be kept in check to prevent prey from consuming everything. But by utilizing a modified fish, we can harvest more while not completely decimating the natural fish populations. Unfortunately, many believe that companies like Monsanto create problems for farmers. But many things heard about Monsanto are myths. On NPR, Dan Charles debunked five of the top leading myths about GMOs (10). Monsanto has gained a lot of notoriety for suing farmers. There have been approximately 147 lawsuits taken up against farmers by Monsanto (11). When purchasing Monsanto seeds for any number of their crops, you must abide by patent laws. In 1980, the US Supreme Court ruled in Diamond v.  Chakrabarty that genetically modified organisms can be patented. This has lead to agreements when purchasing genetically modified seeds that the seeds will be used for a single season, and any seeds to be produced will not be used for the next harvest season. Many critics claim that this requires farmers to purchase seeds every year, something that they never had to do before. The truth is, most farmers were already buying seeds every year, unless they were using open source seeds, or varieties they grew themselves. Monsanto has only taken claims against those farmers who broke contract by collecting seeds and reusing them. Other farmers recognize their illegal actions and report them, leading to lawsuits. Monsanto’s products – like all other GMOs – have actually decreased the overall cost of the farmer. Having a seed that is herbicide and insect resistant means that less money is spent on insecticides and other chemicals. The one real issue caused by GMOs is the insects becoming resistant to the insecticidal bacterium. Monstanto uses Bt, or bacillus thuringiensis, which is a compound that naturally exists in soil. Monsanto has developed a method of using the Bt proteins in the plant that will kill insects upon eating a portion of the plant (13). The method promoted to prevent insect resistance is to grow a patch of non-Bt crops near the Bt crops. This allows insects that feed on the non-Bt crops to mate with insects that have become resistant to the Bt, leading to offspring that is not resistant. This requires farmers to follow the recommendations for their crops to prevent the potential decimation of future crops.
 
Much of what we do and how we farm depends on water and temperature being perfect. But with genetic modification we are able to design a plant that needs less water while producing more. We live in a world were it is Nature v. Humanity, but it is not necessary for us to live in such a way. By modifying plants, we can live in harmony with nature, while maintaining populations that live in areas that would otherwise be uninhabitable. Golden Rice biosynthesizes Vitamin A within the edible part of rice (14), providing vitamin A to those who live in areas that have a shortage of dietary vitamin A. Monsanto was one of the companies to develop it, and they enabled free licensing to developing countries where vitamin A deficiency occurs (15). Farmers were also allowed to collect and reuse seeds for the next harvest (16).  While this action could have been just for good press, the action was good and helped those in need. There are many beneficial properties of GMOs, and testing is thorough.  The World Health Organization, or WHO for short, has developed a series of protocols a product must pass before it can reach market. This includes allergy testing, gene transfer, and outcrossing (17).  Gene transfer occurs when genes from the plant affect the consumer. This would occur in a situation where a crop contains antibiotic-resistant genes were transferred to the consumer. Outcrossing occurs when genes from genetically modified plants mix with standard crops. WHO also does risk assessment of the environment by determining if the crop will be stable in the environment and if it will have any negative impacts on it. With WHO being a international organization, all genetically modified organisms are regulated and tested, ensuring no misdeeds reach the environment.
 
 
While humanity tries to erase the mark we have made on this planet, many oppose changes that could help us live in harmony with nature due to myth and misunderstanding. Fear of the novel is understandable, but these new technologies can help millions around the world not go hungry. According to the UN, poor nutrition is the cause of death for 45% of the deaths of children five and under, which is approximately 3.1 million children every year. The UN claims that one in four children is stunted, and in developing countries - where poor nutrition is common – that number is raised to three out of four (18).  There is no need to continue to be a drain on natural resources when we can modify what we have to grow more with less. By utilizing better growing techniques partnered with effective genetically modified organisms, the world could live without having millions, if not billions of starving people. While freshwater isn’t necessarily an issue for now (1.06e+19 L left, ~4e+15 L used each year, that’s 2658.3 years left), the natural landscape as we know it is getting decimated. With more efficient crops, we can utilize less landscape and sustainably use the land while sustaining our population. Traditional crops and techniques were significantly less efficient and would take more resources to grow the same – if not less – than we would grow with genetically modified organisms.
 
All in all, genetically modified organisms are our future. With the changing environment, we need to adapt to prevent any further damages. Interactions with our surroundings should not be domination and extraction. It should be utilizing the minimum amount of natural resources as possible to provide for the vast amount of people we have on this rock. These modified organisms can change our world for the better, as long as organizations such as WHO continue to regulate the market. It is through innovation and advancement that we may reach a place in time where we are capable of sustaining our population while still living in harmony with our planet.
 
 
 
 
 
Citations
 
1) “GNN - Genetics and Genomics Timeline.” GNN - Genome News Network, Genome News Network, 2004, www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/timeline/1973_Boyer.php.
 
2) Goeddel, et al. “Expression in Escherichia Coli of Chemically Synthesized Genes for Human Insulin.” PNAS, National Academy of Sciences, 1 Jan. 1979, www.pnas.org/content/76/1/106.
 
3) Bevan, Michael W., et al. “A Chimaeric Antibiotic Resistance Gene as a Selectable Marker for Plant Cell Transformation.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 14 July 1983, www.nature.com/articles/304184a0.
 
4) Gordon, Katherine, et al. “Production of Human Tissue Plasminogen Activator in Transgenic Mouse Milk.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 1 Nov. 1987, www.nature.com/articles/nbt1187-1183.
 
 
5) James, Clive. “Global Status of Transgenic Crops in 1997.” 1997, http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/05/download/isaaa-brief-05-1997.pdf
 
6) Bruening, and Lyons. “Archive.” California Agriculture - University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources, 1 June 2000, calag.ucanr.edu/Archive/?article=ca.v054n04p6.
 
7) MacKENZIE, DEBORA. “Transgenic Tobacco Is European First.” New Scientist, New Scientist, 18 June 1994, www.newscientist.com/article/mg14219301.100-transgenic-tobacco-is-european-first.html.
 
8)“Lawrence Journal-World.” Google News, Google, news.google.com/newspapers?id=A0YyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4631,1776980&dq=bacillus thuringiensis potato 1996 approved&hl=.
 
9) Blumenthal, Les. The Washington Post, WP Company, 2 Aug. 2010, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/01/AR2010080103305_pf.html?noredirect=on.
 
10) Charles, Dan. “Top Five Myths Of Genetically Modified Seeds, Busted.” NPR, NPR, 18 Oct. 2012, www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/10/18/163034053/top-five-myths-of-genetically-modified-seeds-busted.
 
11) “Lawsuits Against Farmers.” Monsanto, 11 Apr. 2017, monsanto.com/company/media/statements/lawsuits-against-farmers/.
 
12) “Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980).” Justia Law, US Supreme Court, supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/447/303/.
 
13) “Insect Resistance To Bt Crops.” Monsanto, Monsanto, 11 Apr. 2017, monsanto.com/company/media/statements/insect-resistance-bt/.
 
14) Ye, Xudong, et al. “Engineering the Provitamin A (β-Carotene) Biosynthetic Pathway into (Carotenoid-Free) Rice Endosperm.” Science, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 14 Jan. 2000, science.sciencemag.org/content/287/5451/303.
 
15) Dobson, Robert. “Bulletin of the world Health Organization” 2000.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2560613/pdf/11100623.pdf
 
16) Mayer, Jorge. “Golden Rice Project.” Why Golden Rice, Golden Rice Project, www.goldenrice.org/Content3-Why/why3_FAQ.php#Licence.
 
 
17) “Frequently Asked Questions on Genetically Modified Foods.” World Health Organization, World Health Organization, 15 Feb. 2017, www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-technology/faq-genetically-modified-food/en/.
 
18) “Goal 2: Zero Hunger - United Nations Sustainable Development.” United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/hunger/.